Polygamy in its Historical Context: Hebrew Scriptural Texts pt. 1
๐ Note: All verses in English will follow the NRSV if they are cited from the Bible unless otherwise indicated. Any other sources will rely on a translation with the original translator cited. Hebrew texts that will be cited will come from the Leningrad Codex, unless explicitly stated otherwise.
Peliminary Notes
There are a couple of things that should be pointed out before beginning this deep dive. These things should almost go without saying. The first is that the ancient Israelite scriptural passages were written do a different audience in a different language using different assumptions that undergirded their worldview with different concerns in mind. The second is that for majority of the ancient writings, we don't know who wrote the passages. The third is that the scriptural texts are not books of rules or moral conduct which are binding for all humanity at all times. Lastly, the texts are incapable of "speaking for themselves"; they must be interpreted.
Scriptural Passages
Hebrew documents
The Ancestral Tradition
Lamech
Among some of the genealogies written in the first chapters of Genesis, Cain's genealogy is listed and it contains a peculiar mention of a man named Lamech. Lamech was Cain's great-great-great grandson, and he is portrayed as being a murderous figure. He was said to take two wives simultaneously:
ืืืืงืงืึพืื ืืื ืฉืชื ื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืขืื ืืฉื ืืฉืฉื ืืช ืฆืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืขืื ืืฆืืื ืฉืืขื ืงืืื ื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ื ื ืืืจืชื ืื ืืืฉ ืืจืืชื ืืคืฆืขื ืืืื ืืืืืจืชื ืื ืฉืืขืชืื ืืงืงืึพืงืื ืืืื ืฉืืขืื ืืฉืืขื
Lamech took two wives; the name of the one was Adah, and the name of the other Zillah... Lamech said to his wives:
โAdah and Zillah, hear my voice;
โyou wives of Lamech, listen to what I say:
I have killed a man for wounding me,
โa young man for striking me.
If Cain is avenged sevenfold,
โtruly Lamech seventy-sevenfold.โโ Genesis 4:19, 23-24
Going off of the genealogy of Genesis, it appears that Lamech was the first of the figures to have multiple wives. Notice however that the text provides no value judgment on him taking multiple wives, but rather his act of murdering a young man.
Abram/Abraham
Abraham's story comes into focus in Genesis 11. He came with his family in Mesopatamia and dwelt in Canaan. He is introduced as being married to Sarai (Genesis 11:29) and the author of the text acknowledges that Sarai was unable to bear children (Genesis 11:30). As the narrative of Abram and Sarai progress, there is a scene that occurs prior to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. Sarai, seeing that she is still unable to bear children, tells Abram to have a child with Hagar:
ืืชืชืงืงื ืฉืจื ืืฉืชึพืืืจื ืืชึพืืืจ ืืืืฆืจืืช ืฉืคืืชื ืืงืงืฅ ืขืฉืจ ืฉื ืื ืืฉืืช ืืืจื ืืืจืฅ ืื ืขื ืืชืชืชืชื ืืชื ืืืืจื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืืืื ืืึพืืืจ ืืชืชืืจ ืืชืชืจื ืื ืืจืชื ืืชืชืงื ืืืจืชื ืืขืื ืื ืืชืชืืืจ ืฉืจื ืืึพืืืจื ืืืกื ืขืืื ืื ืื ื ืชืชืชื ืฉืคืืชื ืืืืงื ืืชืชืจื ืื ืืจืชื ืืืงื ืืขืื ืื ืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืื
So, after Abram had lived ten years in the land of Canaan, Sarai, Abramโs wife, took Hagar the Egyptian, her slave-girl, and gave her to her husband Abram as a wife. He went in to Hagar, and she conceived; and when she saw that she had conceived, she looked with contempt on her mistress. Then Sarai said to Abram, โMay the wrong done to me be on you! I gave my slave-girl to your embrace, and when she saw that she had conceived, she looked on me with contempt. May the Lord judge between you and me!โ
โ Genesis 16:3-5
In an ancient setting, to give a maid-servant as a wife to another man entails a sort of arranged marriage to produce an heir. It was permitted in various ancient societies. For example, the Code of Hammurabi contains provisions in law 145 and 146 permitted a wife's maid-servant to have children with the husband as a surrogate mother.
Later in his story, Abraham marries another woman named Keturah. What is fascinating, aside from Abraham's second wife Keturah, the author of Genesis mentions that he had concubines which are unnamed in the text:
ืึทืึฐืึนืกึถืฃ ืึทืึฐืจึธืึธื ืึทืึฐืึดืงึฐืงึทื ืึดืฉืึฐืฉืึธื ืึผืฉืึฐืึธืึผ ืงึฐืืึผืจึธืื ืึทืชึฐืชึตืึถื ืืึน ืึถืชึพืึดืึฐืจึธื ืึฐืึถืชึพืึธืงึฐืฉืึธื ืึฐืึถืชึพืึฐืึธื ืึฐืึถืชึพืึดืึฐืึธื ืึฐืึถืชึพืึดืฉืึฐืึผึธืง ืึฐืึถืชึพืฉืืึผืึท ืึฐืึธืงึฐืฉืึธื ืึธืึทื ืึถืชึพืฉืึฐืึธื ืึฐืึถืชึพืึผึฐืึธื ืึผืึฐื ึตื ืึฐืึธื ืึธืืึผ ืึทืฉืึฐืฉืืึผืจึดื ืึผืึฐืืึผืฉืึดืื ืึผืึฐืึปืึฐืึดืื ืึผืึฐื ึตื ืึดืึฐืึธื ืขึตืืคึธื ืึธืขึตืคึถืจึ ืึทืึฒื ึนืึฐ ืึทืึฒืึดืืึธืข ืึฐืึถืึฐืึผึธืขึธื ืึผึธืึพืึตืึฐืึถื ืึผึฐื ึตื ืงึฐืืึผืจึธืื ืึทืึฐืึดืชึฐืชึตื ืึทืึฐืจึธืึธื ืึถืชึพืึผึธืึพืึฒืฉืึถืจึพืืึน ืึฐืึดืฆึฐืึธืงื ืึฐืึดืึฐื ึตื ืึทืคึฐืคึดืืึทืึฐืฉืึดืืึ ืึฒืฉืึถืจ ืึฐืึทืึฐืจึธืึธื ื ึธืชึทื ืึทืึฐืจึธืึธื ืึทืชึฐืชึธื ึนืช ืึทึฝืึฐืฉืึทืึฐืึฐืึตื ืึตืขึทื ืึดืฆึฐืึธืง ืึผึฐื ืึน ืึผึฐืขืึนืึถื ึฐื ืึผ ืึทื ืงึตืึฐืึธื ืึถืึพืึถืจึถืฅ ืงึถืึถืื
Abraham took another wife, whose name was Keturah. She bore him Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. Jokshan was the father of Sheba and Dedan. The sons of Dedan were Asshurim, Letushim, and Leummim. The sons of Midian were Ephah, Epher, Hanoch, Abida, and Eldaah. All these were the children of Keturah. Abraham gave all he had to Isaac. But to the sons of his concubines Abraham gave gifts, while he was still living, and he sent them away from his son Isaac, eastward to the east country.
โ Genesis 25:1-6
As we can see with Abraham, the author of those passages views Abraham in a neutral light. The author doesn't appear to impose his views on this part of the ancestral narrative. Instead, Abraham is described as being rigtheous to the extent that he walked and talked with Adonai. It would be hard to think of a scenario in which the author would portray Abraham in a positive light if he thought Abraham engagement with polygamy was sinful.
Jacob/Israel
The twelve (or so) tribes of Israel descend from a polygamous family dynamic. After escaping Esau's pursuit, Jacob desires to take Rachel's hand in marriage in exchange for seven years of labor. Rachel's father, Laban, who is Jacob's uncle, agrees. However, instead of giving Rachel to Jacob, Laban gives Leah, Rachel's older sister. Jacob is told by Laban that their custom was to have the older sister married before the first. However, Jacob agrees to work another seven years and he marries Rachel a week later (Genesis 28:1 - 29:30).
The passages in Genesis that deal with Jacob's familial relationships and the births of his children are found in Genesis 29:21 - 30:24, 35:16-18. Jacob is said to love Rachel more than Leah, so Adonai makes Rachel barren and allows Jacob to conceive with Leah to have Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. Rachel, upon seeing Leah give birth to multiple sons, gives her maidservant Bilhah to wife to Jacob. With Bilhah, Jacob has Dan and Naphtali. Leah then offers her maidservant Zilpah to Jacob, and with her, she had Asher and Gad. Leah then bears to Jacob Isaachar, Zebulun, and Dinah. After a while, Adonai remembered Rachel and she no longer was barren, and soon after she gives birth to Joseph and Benjamin. From the narrative, it becomes clear that Jacob's familial network would serve as the boilerplate for covenant blessings and responsibilities in God's plan.
Certainly, the text of the narrative doesn't go to lengths to suggest that polygamy is the ideal arrangment. However, the author of the text appears the acknowledge that the practice was accepted and would be redeemed for Adonai's covenant with Israel.
The Exodus Tradition
Moses
In the current version of the Torah, we have two instances of Moses marrying women. The first one mentioned is in the book of Exodus where he marries Zipporah, who was a daughter of the Midianite priest Jethro. One of them can be found in the book of Exodus. Below is an infrared image of 4Q11 plate 402 frag. 5 that mentions the birth of Moses' son Gershom, written in paleo-Hebrew:
ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืช ืืชึพืืืืฉ ืืืืชืชื ืืชึพืฆืคืคืจื ืืชืชื ืืืฉื ืืชืชืื ืื ืืืืงืจื ืืชึพืฉืื ืืจืฉื ืื ืืืจ ืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืจืฅ ื ืืจืืื ืค
[Moses agreed to stay with the man, and he gave Moses his daughter Zipporah in marriage. She bore a son, and he named] him Gershom[; for he said, โI have been an alien residing in a foreign land.โ]
โ Exodus 2:21-22
Even though the scroll doesn't contain text that Moses married Zipporah, it is most likely the case that passage precedes the one on the fragment since Moses had to have married a woman in order to have his son Gershom.
Another passage that mentions Moses getting marrying a woman is in the book of Numbers where he marries a Cushite woman. Here is a photo of 4Q27 plate 1080 frag. 6 with the relevant portion incased in a red square:
ืืชืชืืืืจ ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉื ืขืึพืืืืช ืืืฉืฉื ืืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจ ืืงื ืืึพืืฉืฉื ืืฉืืช ืืงื
While they were at Hazeroth, Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses because of the Cushite woman whom he had married (for he had indeed married a Cushite woman);
โ Numbers 12:1
Secondary wife marriage
For the Israelite women of antiquity there was no safety net that existed apart from the support offered from a stable marriage. If a woman's husband died, it usually meant Generally speaking, the alternatives to being in a loving household with a husband included either slavery, prostitution, or poverty. With these options, it wasn't illogical at least for some of those women to be married to man who may or may not already have another wife. Although most commoners in Israelite society didn't practice polygamy, it was most certainly not an inconceivable custom.
ืืึพืืืจืช ืืงืงืึพืื ืฉืืจื ืืกืืชื ืืขื ืชื ืื ืืืจืข ืืืึพืฉืืฉึพืืืื ืื ืืขืฉื ืื ืืืฆืื ืื ื ื ืืื ืืกืฃ ืก
If he takes another wife to himself, he shall not diminish the food, clothing, or marital rights of the first wife. And if he does not do these three things for her, she shall go out without debt, without payment of money.
โ Exodus 21:10-11
The legal codes in Exodus 20-24 are often thought to have been standalone statutes that were given to God by Moses. However, upon taking the Exodus tradition into account with Sumerian legal codes, it becomes clear that the codes described in Exodus are likely heavily influenced by the Code of Hammurabi. The code of Hammurabi was a Babylonian legal text that was compiled in the 17th century BCE. This is similar to the statutes in the code of Hammurabi. The translation below was provided by John Huehnergard, displayed on this website here with the Akkadian text side-by-side and its pronunciation:
If a man married a woman and a skin disease has afflicted her, (and) he has decided to marry another woman, he may marry; he may not divorce his wife whom the disease afflicted; she may live in the household he made and he will support her as long as she lives.
If that woman has not consented to live in her husbandโs house, he will restore to her the dowry that she brought from her fatherโs house, and she may go off.โ Code of Hammurabi, code 148-149
It appears that the composer of the Exodus legal code was emulating the ideals found in the Code of Hammurabi. Not only did a woman's right to provisions go into effect when she was ill, but it also went into effect when she was perfectly well. It should go unsaid that the author of the Exodus passage and the Code of Hammurabi understood that bigamy was practiced by some members of their societies. Instead of a condemnation, there is a simple code that suggests that if a man has another wife, it is his duty to ensure the first wife continues to receive support from her husband. The legal code seems to presuppose that such marriages occurred and makes no effort to condemn them.
Deuteronomy
Royal Intermarriage
The the book of Deuteronomy provides a couple of different admonitions regarding the number of wives a ruler was permitted to marry. One dealt with the practice of royal marriage. Although Israelite and Judahite marriage customs were generally encouraged to be endogamous, there were cases in which exogamous marriage was permitted for political or commercial purposes. Occasionally ancient kingdoms would offer their princesses to the kings or princes of other nations to establish alliances. The concern this kind of marriage presented in the eyes of the pious Israelites was that neighboring nations could influence the king of Israel to worship or pay tribute to another nation's gods as an act of appeasement. It is likely that this kind of risk was what the author of Deuteronomy had in mind, and this will be seen in the discussion on the book of Kings.
The following is an image of a manuscript fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls. It comes from 4Q33, plate 322 frag. 1. It's date of composition is generally agreed to be around the Late Hasmonean dynasty between 70 - 50 BCE.
ืืื ืืจืืึพืื ื ืฉืื ]ืืื ืืก[ืืจ ืืืื ืืืกืฃ ืืืื ืื ืืจืืึพืื ืืื
[Nor shall he mulitply wives for himself] lest [his heart] tur[n away...]
โ Deuteronomy 17:17
This passage, however, seems to beg an unanswered question: how many wives is too many? The text doesn't answer the question, but it appears the admonition was to limit that kind of marriage in the same vein as limiting the acquisition of excess wealth.
The phrase "his heart will turn away" carries a special kind of purpose in this passage. It is very similar to the kind of language used by Ezekiel 6:9 where the concept of the heart of a person turning away is related to the idea of forsaking the God of Israel for idol worship. The heart in Israelite thought was perceived to be the mental faculties of the person, and it was the seat of all human experience and covenantal relationship. It is likely that the rhetoric the author employed is a reaction to the marriages that David and Solomon had which compelled them to forsake the covenant they made with Adonai. More on them later.
The Damascus Document (CD)
The Damascus Document (CD hereafter) is an ancient work that is attested in Cairo, Egypt and in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Fragments of the work were found in Cairo 1896 which dated to between the 10th and 12th centuries. Subsequent fragments were found in Qumran in 1952 but they weren't published in full until 1996. It was one of the most influential and important works among the Essenes. The relevant portion of the document that mentions polygamy is found within the introductory portions of the work and it mentions David. In a polemic against the Pharisees, or the "builders of the wall" in the author's parlance, the text portrays in aggressive language a scathing rebuke. Below are images of sections of the fourth and fifth columns of CD with the relevant text underlined in red:
ืืฉืจ ืืืจ ืืืฃ ืืืืคืื ืื ื ืืชืคืฉืื ืืฉืชืื ืืื ืืช ืืงืืช ืฉืชื ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจ ืื ืงืื ืืจื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืชืื ืฉื ืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืื ืืชืื ืืขื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืื ืื ืืจืื ืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืงืจื ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืจื ืืืชืื ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืื {ื ืค.} ื ืคืชื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืืืืฉืข ืืืืฉืืข ืืืืงื ืื ืืฉืจ ืขืืื ืืช ืืขืฉืชืจืช ืืืืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืขืืื ืฆืืืง ืืืขืื ืืขืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืจืื
They are caught in two: fornication, by taking two wives in their lifetimes, although the principle of creation is 'male and female He created them' and those who went into the ark โwent into the ark two by twoโ. Concerning the Leader, it is written 'he shall not multiply wives to himself'; but David had not read the sealed book of the Law in the Ark; for it was not opened in Israel from the day of the death of Eleazar and Joshua and the elders who served the goddess Ashtoreth. It lay buried (and was not) revealed until the appearance of Zadok.
โ CD IV:20 - V:5
From reading this, it appears that the Essenes viewed themselves as being more pure than the Pharisees because they were "taking two wives in their lifetimes". They also appealed to passages from the Genesis concerning the entrance of pairs of animals into the ark as well as the statement in the creation about Elohim creating male and female humans. Interestingly, the author of the text makes an admission that David "had not read the sealed book of the Law in the Ark", which likely refers to Deuteronomy since the passage quoted prior is from Deut. 17:17. From this, it could be interpreted that David is implicitly excused for his polygamy because according to the author, he had not read the "Law".
The Temple Scroll (11Q19)
The Temple Scroll is the longest scroll found at Qumran. It measures about 26 feet long. Originally it was discovered in 1956 in Qumran cave 11 but wasn't obtained by Yigal Yadin until 1967. Parts of the scroll are deterioriated but the majority of the text is still intact. Most scholars date the scroll to the Herodian dynasty (between 37 - 4 BCE). One group of researchers used radiocarbon dating to find that the scroll was written with a 68% probability between 100 BCE - 1 CE. The scroll contains concepts which expound on ritual practices and legal codes in Deuteronomy 17:17.
The first section of text gives laws regarding the king and the last section of the text details the duties of the political officials, i.e. the king, his council, and military personel. The image below is an image of columns LVI - LVII of 11Q19. Here a translation of the scroll is provided by Prof. Yigael Yadin.
Further, he must not multiply wives for himself, lest they turn his heart from following Me. Again, he must not unduly increase gold and silver for himself.
This is the law [that shall be written for the king as] the priests [look on]. On the day when he is crowned [as king] of the children of Israel, [a census shall be taken] of those from "twenty to sixty years old, according to their divisions. He shall appoint at their head commanders of thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens, throughout all their cities. He shall select from them one thousand men from each tribe to stay with him: twelve thousand warriors who shall never leave him alone, lest he be captured by the nations. All those chosen must be truthful men, God-fearing, despising unjust gain, mighty warriors. They shall stay with him always, day and night, in order to protect him from any sort of sin and from a foreign nation, lest he be captured. Twelve princes of his people shall be with him, and also twelve selected priests and twelve selected Levites. They are to deliberate with him on matters of justice and Law, and he must not become too proud for them or do anything on counsel other than theirs. He may not take a wife from any of the nations. Rather, he must take himself a wife from his father's house โ that is, from his father's family. He is not to take another wife in addition to her; no, she alone shall be with him as long as she lives. If she dies, then he may take himself another wife from his father's house, that is, his family. He must not pervert judgment or take a bribe to pervert righteous judgment. Nor is he to desire any field, vineyard, wealth, or house, or any precious thing in Israel, so as to steal [...]
โ 11Q19 LVI:18-19, LVII:1-19
For the king, his royal councilmen, and the military officials, they were to only marry a single individual. It revises the law from Deuteronomy 17:17 to make it more expansive and restrictive. However, this scroll makes no mention of common citizens of the kingdom as being subject to these statutes. The author of this document did not absolutely restrain plural marriage or perceive it in a negative light; it only proscribes it for individuals of royal, governmental, and military occupations.
Marriage of Captive Women
One of the possible outcomes was the complete domination of a nation over another. Upon totally defeating the forces of the opposing nation, the question naturally would arise as to what should be done with the spoils. In this scenario, the defeated population had no choice but to capitulate to their victors. Since wars typically foisted a significant loss of male life, the distribution of the defeated population would skew towards the women. Unfortunately for the besieged nation, the women, including daughters and wives, whose husbands and fathers died in combat would end up as widows and fatherless with no more safety net to afford them provisions and protection. In light of this fact, there were provisions written into the Deuteronomic laws regarding captive women from the defeated nation. Below is an image of 4Q33 plate 317 frag. 4 which includes text from the beginning of the law concerning taking a captive wife after a military conquest.
ืืึพืชืฆื ืืืืืืื ืขืึพืืืืื ืื ืชื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืฉืืื ืืจืืืช ืืฉืฉืืื ืืฉืช ืืคืชึพืชืืจ ืืืฉืงืช ืื ืืืงืืช ืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืืืืชื ืืึพืชืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืชึพืจืืฉื ืืขืฉืชื ืืชึพืฆืคืคืจื ืื ืืืกืืจื ืืชึพืฉืืืช ืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืชึพืืืื ืืืชึพืืืื ืืจื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืชืืื ืืืื ืืืขืืชื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืืื ืืึพืื ืืคืฆืช ืื ืืฉืืืืชื ืื ืคืฉื ืืืืจ ืืึพืชืืืจื ื ื ืืืืกืฃ ืืึพืชืชืขืืืจ ืื ืชืืช ืืฉืจ ืขื ื ืืชื ืก
โWhen you go out to war against your enemies and the Lord your God hands them over to you and you take them captive, suppose you see among the captives a beautiful woman whom you desire and want to marry, and so you bring her home to your house: she shall shave her head, pare her nails, discard her captiveโs garb, and remain in your house a full month mourning for her father and mother; after that you may go in to her and be her husband, and she shall be your wife. But if you are not satisfied with her, you shall let her go free and certainly not sell her for money. You must not treat her as a slave, since you have dishonored her.
โ Deuteronomy 21:10-14
Notice that nowhere in this passage is it suggested that an already married man couldn't marry a captive woman.
Firstborn Inheritance Rights and Bigamy
Later in the law codes, there is a passage that mentions the right of the firstborn in relation to a man with multiple wives. Here is an image of 4Q38a plate 1090 frag. 9 with the single word written on it:
ืืึพืชืืืื ืืืืฉ ืฉืชื ื ืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืึพืื ืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืฉืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืชึพืื ืื ืืช ืืฉืจึพืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืชึพืืึพืืืืืื ืขืึพืคื ื ืืึพืืฉืฉื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืชึพืืืืืจ ืืึพืืฉืฉื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืชืช ืื ืคื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืฉืจึพืืืืฆื ืื ืืึพืืื ืจืืฉืืช ืื ื ืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืืจื ืก
If a man has two wives, one of them loved and the other disliked, and if both the loved and the disliked have borne him sons, the firstborn being the son of the one who is disliked, then on the day when he wills his possessions to his sons, he is not permitted to treat the son of the loved as the firstborn in preference to the son of the disliked, who is the firstborn. He must acknowledge as firstborn the son of the one who is disliked, giving him a double portion of all that he has; since he is the first issue of his virility, the right of the firstborn is his.
โ Deuteronomy 21:15-17
The author of this passage seems to assume the plural marriage was a societal reality and never attempts to discourage the practice. What can be said is that the author took for granted that some men in his society had at least two wives.
Levirate Marriage
Levirate marriage is another topic of concern to the author of Deuteronomy. The term โlevirateโ is based on the Latin word levir which means โbrother-in-lawโ. The law is described as follows:
ืืึพืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืึพืื ืืึพืชืืื ืืฉืชึพืืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืืืฉ ืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืืงืื ืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืฉืจ ืชืื ืืงืื ืขืึพืฉื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืึพืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืืึพืื ืืืคืฅ ืืืืฉ ืืงืืช ืืชึพืืืืชื ืืขืืชื ืืืืชื ืืฉืฉืขืจื ืืึพืืืืงื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืึพืื ืืงื ืึพืขืืจื ืืืืืจื ืืืื ืืขืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืคืฆืชื ืืงืืชื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืขืื ื ืืืืงื ืื ืืืืฆื ื ืขืื ืืขื ืจืืื ืืืจืงื ืืคื ืื ืืขื ืชื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืขืฉื ืืืืฉ ืืฉืจ ืืึพืืื ื ืืชึพืืืช ืืืื ืื ืงืจื ืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืช ืืืืฅ ืื ื ืขื ืก
When brothers reside together, and one of them dies and has no son, the wife of the deceased shall not be married outside the family to a stranger. Her husbandโs brother shall go in to her, taking her in marriage, and performing the duty of a husbandโs brother to her, and the firstborn whom she bears shall succeed to the name of the deceased brother, so that his name may not be blotted out of Israel. But if the man has no desire to marry his brotherโs widow, then his brotherโs widow shall go up to the elders at the gate and say, โMy husbandโs brother refuses to perpetuate his brotherโs name in Israel; he will not perform the duty of a husbandโs brother to me.โ Then the elders of his town shall summon him and speak to him. If he persists, saying, โI have no desire to marry her,โ then his brotherโs wife shall go up to him in the presence of the elders, pull his sandal off his foot, spit in his face, and declare, โThis is what is done to the man who does not build up his brotherโs house.โ Throughout Israel his family shall be known as โthe house of him whose sandal was pulled off.โ
โ Deuteronomy 25:5-10
The idea is that if a man dies, his brother was obligated to marry his widow. A careful reading of this statute's text reveals that this code was enforced irrespective of the husband's brother's marital status. If he refused to marry, he would be brought before elders in the congregation and if he continued to refuse upon speaking with them, there would be consequences.
To understand this practice, it is important to consider the historical context for which this passage was written. Women in the ancient Levant were not entitled to the property of her husband. When the husband died, the property would either fall into the hands of the husband's family or the man of the next husband the widow would marry.
This concept of marriage is taken for granted in various Israelite texts. It even serves as the basis for certain narratives in the Tanakh:
- In Genesis 38:7-11, Judah's son Er marries Tamar. However, due to Er's wickedness, Adonai takes his life, leaving Tamar a widow. Judah then requests that his other son Onan marry Er's widow and ensure that she had children for his brother's name to continue. However, Onan refused to have children with her because he knew that the children wouldn't be his, therefore Adonai killed him.
- After Ruth's husband Mahlon and all the other males in his family died, she moved in with her mother-in-law Naomi in Judah. Eventually, Boaz, an affluent relative, fell in love with her and married her (Ruth 4:5).
Samuel
In the book of 1 Samuel 1, the narrative begins by describing Elkanah, Samuel's father. Elkanah had two wives: Hannah and Peninnah. With Peninnah, Elkanah had several children, but with Hannah he had none until she gave birth to Samuel. The author of 1 Samuel describes Elkanah as a man who offered sacrifices to yearly to the priests Hophni and Phineas at the temple. He is also portrayed as a righteous man who obeyed God's commandments and loved and served both his wives. To show his love and devotion to Hannah, he offered her a double portion of the ceremonial meal. The narrative portrays Samuel's parents as righteous and it serves to show the importance of his role. The text does not present his father's bigamy as sinful, and if it did, it would have undermined the author's purpose to portray Samuel coming from a righteous and upright family.
There is a fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls that contains parts of the text 1 Samuel 1:22-2:23. Below is a picture of 4Q51, plate 998 frag. 2 taken with an infrared camera:
ืืื ื ื ืื ืขืืชื ืืึพืืืจื ืืืืฉื ืขื ืืืืื ืื ื ืขืจ
[But Hannah did not go up, and] she [to]ld her husband, ["Not] until [the child is weaned...]
โ 1 Samuel 1:22
Nathan's message to David
In book of Samuel, David commits his well known sin with Bathsheba. Upon doing this, the Prophet Nathan was sent by Adonai to encounter David. Nathan tells him a parable about a wealthy man who steals a poor man's lamb. David reacts in anger wanting justice to be served, but Nathan informs him that David is the one who is guilty. Nathan proceeds to tell him that Adonai gave the kingship to David, gave him his wives, and all the territory of Israel and Judah to govern. Below is another image of a fragment discovered at Qumran. This is an image of 4Q51 plate 1102 frag. 7 with parts verses 8-9.
ืืืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืึพืืื ืืชืชื ืืืืฉ ืืึพืืืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืชืื ืืืื ืขืึพืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืฆืืชืื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืชืชื ื ืื ืืชึพืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืชึพื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืงื ืืืชืชื ื ืื ืืชึพืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืึพืืขื ืืืกืคื ืื ืืื ื ื ืืืื ื ื
Nathan said to David, โYou are the man! Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: I anointed you king over Israel, and I rescued you from the hand of Saul; I gave you your masterโs house, and your masterโs wives into your bosom, and gave you the house of Israel and of Judah; and if that had been too little, I would have added as much more.
โ 2 Samuel 12:7-8
When Adonai refers to "your master's house, and your master's wives" he is referring to Saul's house and wives. In context of ancient Levantine kingship, if a king died, his royal harem would be inherited by his successor. Prior to Saul's death, he had one wife and one concubine (1 Samuel 14:50 & 2 Samuel 3:7 respectively). It is possible that he more but the text doesn't indicate it one way or another. Adonai makes it clear that those women were given to David after Saul died as well as all the property that he owned. Notice how there is no indication in the text of Adonai condemning David for taking his predecessor's wives; they are portrayed by the author as being a gift from Adonai.
Note for Part 2
Part 2 is forthcoming. It will include an explanation of the Joseph Smith Translation (JST) changes made to the passages. It will also include passages from the book of Kings. Stay tuned.
๐ Note: This is an original post. No AI generation tools where used in the production of the article.